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What Has to Happen Before Mitosis Can Occur?

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Procedure in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new identical nuclei

For the blazon of jail cell partitioning in sexually-reproducing organisms used to produce gametes, encounter Meiosis. For excessive constriction of the pupils, come across Miosis. For the parasitic infestation, see Myiasis. For muscle inflammation, see Myositis.

Mitosis in an animal cell (phases ordered counter-clockwise).

Onion (Allium) cells in dissimilar phases of the cell cycle enlarged 800 diameters.
a. non-dividing cells
b. nuclei preparing for segmentation (spireme-stage)
c. dividing cells showing mitotic figures
e. pair of daughter-cells shortly after division

In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell bike in which replicated chromosomes are separated into 2 new nuclei. Cell partition by mitosis gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is maintained.[one] Therefore, mitosis is likewise known every bit equational sectionalisation.[two] [three] In general, mitosis is preceded by Southward phase of interphase (during which Dna replication occurs) and is oft followed by telophase and cytokinesis; which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and jail cell membrane of i cell into 2 new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.[four] The dissimilar stages of mitosis altogether define the mitotic (Yard) stage of an animal prison cell cycle—the division of the female parent cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.[five]

The procedure of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of i fix of activities and the showtime of the next. These stages are preprophase (specific to constitute cells), prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated, condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to reverse sides of the jail cell.[half-dozen] The result is ii genetically identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the prison cell may so continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells.[seven] The unlike phases of mitosis can exist visualized in real time, using live cell imaging.[8] Producing 3 or more daughter cells instead of the normal two is a mitotic mistake called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis (straight cell triplication / multiplication).[nine] Other errors during mitosis tin can induce apoptosis (programmed cell expiry) or cause mutations. Certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations.[10]

Mitosis occurs just in eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, split by a different process called binary fission[ citation needed ]. Mitosis varies between organisms.[xi] For instance, animate being cells undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down earlier the chromosomes separate, whereas fungi undergo a "airtight" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.[12] Most beast cells undergo a shape change, known every bit mitotic cell rounding, to adopt a near spherical morphology at the start of mitosis. Most homo cells are produced by mitotic cell sectionalisation. Important exceptions include the gametes – sperm and egg cells – which are produced by meiosis.

Discovery [edit]

Numerous descriptions of cell division were fabricated during 18th and 19th centuries, with various degrees of accuracy.[13] In 1835, the German language botanist Hugo von Mohl, described prison cell segmentation in the green algae Cladophora glomerata, stating that multiplication of cells occurs through cell sectionalisation.[14] [15] [sixteen] In 1838, Matthias Jakob Schleiden affirmed that "formation of new cells in their interior was a general rule for cell multiplication in plants", a view subsequently rejected in favour of Mohl'southward model, due to contributions of Robert Remak and others.[17]

In fauna cells, prison cell division with mitosis was discovered in frog, rabbit, and true cat cornea cells in 1873 and described for the first time by the Polish histologist Wacław Mayzel in 1875.[xviii] [xix]

Bütschli, Schneider and Fol might have also claimed the discovery of the process presently known as "mitosis".[13] In 1873, the German zoologist Otto Bütschli published information from observations on nematodes. A few years later on, he discovered and described mitosis based on those observations.[xx] [21] [22]

The term "mitosis", coined by Walther Flemming in 1882,[23] is derived from the Greek discussion μίτος (mitos, "warp thread").[24] [25] There are some alternative names for the process,[26] e.1000., "karyokinesis" (nuclear division), a term introduced by Schleicher in 1878,[27] [28] or "equational division", proposed by August Weismann in 1887.[29] However, the term "mitosis" is also used in a wide sense by some authors to refer to karyokinesis and cytokinesis together.[30] Presently, "equational sectionalisation" is more normally used to refer to meiosis II, the part of meiosis most similar mitosis.[31]

Phases [edit]

Overview [edit]

The primary issue of mitosis and cytokinesis is the transfer of a parent cell's genome into two daughter cells. The genome is equanimous of a number of chromosomes—complexes of tightly coiled DNA that contain genetic information vital for proper cell function.[32] Considering each resultant girl cell should exist genetically identical to the parent jail cell, the parent cell must make a copy of each chromosome earlier mitosis. This occurs during the South stage of interphase.[33] Chromosome duplication results in 2 identical sister chromatids spring together by cohesin proteins at the centromere.

When mitosis begins, the chromosomes condense and become visible. In some eukaryotes, for example animals, the nuclear envelope, which segregates the Dna from the cytoplasm, disintegrates into small vesicles. The nucleolus, which makes ribosomes in the cell, also disappears. Microtubules project from opposite ends of the prison cell, attach to the centromeres, and align the chromosomes centrally inside the jail cell. The microtubules then contract to pull the sister chromatids of each chromosome autonomously.[34] Sister chromatids at this point are called daughter chromosomes. As the cell elongates, corresponding daughter chromosomes are pulled toward opposite ends of the prison cell and condense maximally in late anaphase. A new nuclear envelope forms around the separated girl chromosomes, which decondense to class interphase nuclei.

During mitotic progression, typically later the anaphase onset, the jail cell may undergo cytokinesis. In animal cells, a prison cell membrane pinches in between the ii developing nuclei to produce two new cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the two nuclei. Cytokinesis does not e'er occur; coenocytic (a blazon of multinucleate condition) cells undergo mitosis without cytokinesis.

Diagram of the mitotic phases

Interphase [edit]

The mitotic stage is a relatively curt catamenia of the cell bike. It alternates with the much longer interphase, where the prison cell prepares itself for the process of cell division. Interphase is divided into three phases: G1 (beginning gap), S (synthesis), and G2 (second gap). During all iii parts of interphase, the cell grows by producing proteins and cytoplasmic organelles. However, chromosomes are replicated only during the S stage. Thus, a cell grows (Thoui), continues to grow as it duplicates its chromosomes (South), grows more than and prepares for mitosis (G2), and finally divides (1000) before restarting the cycle.[33] All these phases in the jail cell cycle are highly regulated past cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases, and other cell cycle proteins. The phases follow 1 another in strict order and there are "checkpoints" that give the cell cues to go on from one phase to another.[35] Cells may besides temporarily or permanently leave the jail cell bike and enter G0 phase to terminate dividing. This tin can occur when cells go overcrowded (density-dependent inhibition) or when they differentiate to conduct out specific functions for the organism, equally is the case for human heart muscle cells and neurons. Some G0 cells accept the ability to re-enter the prison cell wheel.

Deoxyribonucleic acid double-strand breaks tin exist repaired during interphase by two master processes.[36] The first process, not-homologous end joining (NHEJ), can join the two cleaved ends of DNA in the G1, Due south and G2 phases of interphase. The 2nd process, homologous recombinational repair (HRR), is more accurate than NHEJ in repairing double-strand breaks. HRR is active during the S and G2 phases of interphase when DNA replication is either partially achieved or after it is completed, since HRR requires two adjacent homologs.

Interphase helps prepare the cell for mitotic division. It dictates whether the mitotic cell division will occur. It carefully stops the cell from proceeding whenever the cell's DNA is damaged or has not completed an important phase. The interphase is very important as it volition determine if mitosis completes successfully. It will reduce the amount of damaged cells produced and the production of cancerous cells. A miscalculation by the cardinal Interphase proteins could be crucial as the latter could potentially create cancerous cells.[37] Today, more than research is existence washed to empathise specifically how the phases stated above occur.

Mitosis [edit]

Stages of early mitosis in a vertebrate cell with micrographs of chromatids

Preprophase (institute cells) [edit]

In establish cells simply, prophase is preceded by a pre-prophase phase. In highly vacuolated plant cells, the nucleus has to migrate into the eye of the jail cell before mitosis tin can begin. This is accomplished through the formation of a phragmosome, a transverse canvas of cytoplasm that bisects the prison cell along the future aeroplane of cell segmentation. In addition to phragmosome germination, preprophase is characterized by the formation of a ring of microtubules and actin filaments (called preprophase band) underneath the plasma membrane effectually the equatorial plane of the time to come mitotic spindle. This band marks the position where the cell will eventually split. The cells of higher plants (such as the flowering plants) lack centrioles; instead, microtubules form a spindle on the surface of the nucleus and are then organized into a spindle by the chromosomes themselves, after the nuclear envelope breaks down.[38] The preprophase band disappears during nuclear envelope breakup and spindle formation in prometaphase.[39] : 58–67

Prophase [edit]

Condensing chromosomes. Interphase nucleus (left), condensing chromosomes (middle) and condensed chromosomes (right).

During prophase, which occurs after G2 interphase, the cell prepares to dissever by tightly condensing its chromosomes and initiating mitotic spindle formation. During interphase, the genetic material in the nucleus consists of loosely packed chromatin. At the onset of prophase, chromatin fibers condense into discrete chromosomes that are typically visible at high magnification through a light microscope. In this stage, chromosomes are long, thin, and thread-like. Each chromosome has two chromatids. The two chromatids are joined at the centromere.

Gene transcription ceases during prophase and does not resume until late anaphase to early Yard1 stage.[40] [41] [42] The nucleolus also disappears during early on prophase.[43]

Shut to the nucleus of animate being cells are structures called centrosomes, consisting of a pair of centrioles surrounded by a loose collection of proteins. The centrosome is the coordinating center for the cell's microtubules. A cell inherits a single centrosome at prison cell division, which is duplicated by the cell before a new round of mitosis begins, giving a pair of centrosomes. The ii centrosomes polymerize tubulin to help form a microtubule spindle apparatus. Motor proteins so push the centrosomes forth these microtubules to contrary sides of the cell. Although centrosomes help organize microtubule associates, they are not essential for the formation of the spindle apparatus, since they are absent from plants,[38] and are not absolutely required for beast cell mitosis.[44]

Prometaphase [edit]

At the first of prometaphase in animate being cells, phosphorylation of nuclear lamins causes the nuclear envelope to disintegrate into small membrane vesicles. As this happens, microtubules invade the nuclear space. This is chosen open mitosis, and it occurs in some multicellular organisms. Fungi and some protists, such as algae or trichomonads, undergo a variation called closed mitosis where the spindle forms inside the nucleus, or the microtubules penetrate the intact nuclear envelope.[45] [46]

In late prometaphase, kinetochore microtubules begin to search for and attach to chromosomal kinetochores.[47] A kinetochore is a proteinaceous microtubule-binding structure that forms on the chromosomal centromere during late prophase.[47] [48] A number of polar microtubules find and interact with corresponding polar microtubules from the opposite centrosome to form the mitotic spindle.[49] Although the kinetochore structure and function are not fully understood, information technology is known that information technology contains some grade of molecular motor.[50] When a microtubule connects with the kinetochore, the motor activates, using energy from ATP to "clamber" upward the tube toward the originating centrosome. This motor activity, coupled with polymerisation and depolymerisation of microtubules, provides the pulling force necessary to later carve up the chromosome's two chromatids.[fifty]

Metaphase [edit]

A cell in late metaphase. All chromosomes (blueish) but 1 have arrived at the metaphase plate.

Subsequently the microtubules have located and attached to the kinetochores in prometaphase, the two centrosomes begin pulling the chromosomes towards opposite ends of the prison cell. The resulting tension causes the chromosomes to marshal along the metaphase plate or equatorial plane, an imaginary line that is centrally located betwixt the two centrosomes (at approximately the midline of the cell).[49] To ensure equitable distribution of chromosomes at the end of mitosis, the metaphase checkpoint guarantees that kinetochores are properly fastened to the mitotic spindle and that the chromosomes are aligned forth the metaphase plate.[51] If the prison cell successfully passes through the metaphase checkpoint, it proceeds to anaphase.

Anaphase [edit]

During anaphase A, the cohesins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, forming two identical daughter chromosomes.[52] Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the newly formed daughter chromosomes to reverse ends of the cell. During anaphase B, polar microtubules push against each other, causing the jail cell to elongate.[53] In tardily anaphase, chromosomes also accomplish their overall maximal condensation level, to help chromosome segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus.[54] In almost brute cells, anaphase A precedes anaphase B, but some vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the contrary order of events.[52]

Telophase [edit]

Telophase (from the Greek word τελος significant "finish") is a reversal of prophase and prometaphase events. At telophase, the polar microtubules continue to lengthen, elongating the jail cell even more than. If the nuclear envelope has broken downward, a new nuclear envelope forms using the membrane vesicles of the parent cell's old nuclear envelope. The new envelope forms around each set of separated girl chromosomes (though the membrane does not enclose the centrosomes) and the nucleolus reappears. Both sets of chromosomes, now surrounded by new nuclear membrane, brainstorm to "relax" or decondense. Mitosis is consummate. Each daughter nucleus has an identical gear up of chromosomes. Cell division may or may non occur at this time depending on the organism.

Cytokinesis [edit]

Cilliate undergoing cytokinesis, with the cleavage furrow beingness clearly visible

Cytokinesis is not a phase of mitosis, merely rather a split up process necessary for completing prison cell sectionalization. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow (pinch) containing a contractile ring, develops where the metaphase plate used to be, pinching off the separated nuclei.[55] In both animal and plant cells, cell partition is likewise driven past vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus, which move along microtubules to the middle of the jail cell.[56] In plants, this structure coalesces into a cell plate at the center of the phragmoplast and develops into a cell wall, separating the two nuclei. The phragmoplast is a microtubule structure typical for higher plants, whereas some greenish algae use a phycoplast microtubule array during cytokinesis.[39] : 64–seven, 328–9 Each daughter prison cell has a complete copy of the genome of its parent cell. The end of cytokinesis marks the end of the M-phase.

There are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming unmarried cells with multiple nuclei. The nigh notable occurrence of this is among the fungi, slime molds, and coenocytic algae, simply the miracle is establish in various other organisms. Fifty-fifty in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic evolution.[57]

Office [edit]

Mitosis's "part" or significance relies on the maintenance of the chromosomal set; each formed cell receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosomes of the parent prison cell.

Mitosis occurs in the following circumstances:

  • Evolution and growth: The number of cells within an organism increases by mitosis. This is the footing of the development of a multicellular body from a unmarried cell, i.e., zygote and also the basis of the growth of a multicellular body.
  • Jail cell replacement: In some parts of the body, eastward.thou. skin and digestive tract, cells are constantly sloughed off and replaced by new ones. New cells are formed by mitosis and then are exact copies of the cells being replaced. In like way, red blood cells accept a brusque lifespan (only about 4 months) and new RBCs are formed by mitosis[ commendation needed ].
  • Regeneration: Some organisms can regenerate body parts. The production of new cells in such instances is accomplished by mitosis. For example, starfish regenerate lost arms through mitosis.
  • Asexual reproduction: Some organisms produce genetically similar offspring through asexual reproduction. For example, the hydra reproduces asexually by budding. The cells at the surface of hydra undergo mitosis and grade a mass called a bud. Mitosis continues in the cells of the bud and this grows into a new individual. The same division happens during asexual reproduction or vegetative propagation in plants.

Variations [edit]

Forms of mitosis [edit]

The mitosis process in the cells of eukaryotic organisms follows a similar blueprint, but with variations in three chief details. "Closed" and "open up" mitosis can be distinguished on the basis of nuclear envelope remaining intact or breaking down. An intermediate form with fractional degradation of the nuclear envelope is called "semiopen" mitosis. With respect to the symmetry of the spindle apparatus during metaphase, an approximately axially symmetric (centered) shape is called "orthomitosis", distinguished from the eccentric spindles of "pleuromitosis", in which mitotic apparatus has bilateral symmetry. Finally, a third criterion is the location of the cardinal spindle in case of closed pleuromitosis: "extranuclear" (spindle located in the cytoplasm) or "intranuclear" (in the nucleus).[11]

  • closed
    intranuclear
    pleuromitosis

  • closed
    extranuclear
    pleuromitosis

  • closed
    orthomitosis

  • semiopen
    pleuromitosis

  • semiopen
    orthomitosis

  • open
    orthomitosis

Nuclear division takes place only in cells of organisms of the eukaryotic domain, every bit bacteria and archaea take no nucleus. Bacteria and archaea undergo a different blazon of segmentation.[ citation needed ]Within each of the eukaryotic supergroups, mitosis of the open up form can be plant, as well equally closed mitosis, except for Excavata, which show exclusively closed mitosis.[58] Post-obit, the occurrence of the forms of mitosis in eukaryotes:[xi] [59]

  • Closed intranuclear pleuromitosis is typical of Foraminifera, some Prasinomonadida, some Kinetoplastida, the Oxymonadida, the Haplosporidia, many fungi (chytrids, oomycetes, zygomycetes, ascomycetes), and some Radiolaria (Spumellaria and Acantharia); it seems to be the nearly primitive type.
  • Closed extranuclear pleuromitosis occurs in Trichomonadida and Dinoflagellata.
  • Closed orthomitosis is found amidst diatoms, ciliates, some Microsporidia, unicellular yeasts and some multicellular fungi.
  • Semiopen pleuromitosis is typical of virtually Apicomplexa.
  • Semiopen orthomitosis occurs with different variants in some amoebae (Lobosa) and some green flagellates (e.g., Raphidophyta or Volvox).
  • Open orthomitosis is typical in mammals and other Metazoa, and in land plants; but information technology as well occurs in some protists.

Errors and other variations [edit]

An abnormal (tripolar) mitosis (12 o'clock position) in a precancerous lesion of the stomach (H&East stain)

Errors can occur during mitosis, particularly during early on embryonic evolution in humans.[threescore] During each stride of mitosis, in that location are commonly checkpoints too that control the normal result of mitosis.[61] Simply, occasionally to almost rarely, mistakes will happen. Mitotic errors can create aneuploid cells that have besides few or as well many of 1 or more chromosomes, a condition associated with cancer.[62] [63] Early human embryos, cancer cells, infected or intoxicated cells can besides endure from pathological division into three or more daughter cells (tripolar or multipolar mitosis), resulting in severe errors in their chromosomal complements.[9]

In nondisjunction, sister chromatids neglect to separate during anaphase.[64] I daughter cell receives both sis chromatids from the nondisjoining chromosome and the other jail cell receives none. Every bit a issue, the former prison cell gets three copies of the chromosome, a status known as trisomy, and the latter will have just ane copy, a condition known as monosomy. On occasion, when cells feel nondisjunction, they neglect to consummate cytokinesis and retain both nuclei in one cell, resulting in binucleated cells.[65]

Anaphase lag occurs when the movement of one chromatid is impeded during anaphase.[64] This may be caused by a failure of the mitotic spindle to properly attach to the chromosome. The lagging chromatid is excluded from both nuclei and is lost. Therefore, one of the girl cells will be monosomic for that chromosome.

Endoreduplication (or endoreplication) occurs when chromosomes duplicate but the cell does not subsequently divide. This results in polyploid cells or, if the chromosomes duplicates repeatedly, polytene chromosomes.[64] [66] Endoreduplication is found in many species and appears to exist a normal part of evolution.[66] Endomitosis is a variant of endoreduplication in which cells replicate their chromosomes during Southward stage and enter, but prematurely cease, mitosis. Instead of beingness divided into ii new daughter nuclei, the replicated chromosomes are retained within the original nucleus.[57] [67] The cells then re-enter 1000ane and S phase and replicate their chromosomes again.[67] This may occur multiple times, increasing the chromosome number with each round of replication and endomitosis. Platelet-producing megakaryocytes go through endomitosis during jail cell differentiation.[68] [69]

Amitosis in ciliates and in beast placental tissues results in a random distribution of parental alleles.

Karyokinesis without cytokinesis originates multinucleated cells called coenocytes.

Diagnostic marker [edit]

Mitosis appearances in breast cancer

In histopathology, the mitosis rate (mitotic count or mitotic index) is an important parameter in various types of tissue samples, for diagnosis as well equally to further specify the aggressiveness of tumors. For instance, in that location is routinely a quantification of mitotic count in breast cancer classification.[70] The mitoses must be counted in an area of the highest mitotic activeness. Visually identifying these areas, is difficult in tumors with very loftier mitotic activity.[71] Besides, the detection of atypical forms of mitosis can be used both every bit a diagnostic and prognostic marking.[ citation needed ] For case, lag-type mitosis (non-fastened condensed chromatin in the area of the mitotic figure) indicates high gamble human papillomavirus infection-related Cervical cancer.[ citation needed ] In social club to improve the reproducibilty and accuracy of the mitotic count, automated paradigm analysis using deep learning-based algorithms have been proposed.[72] However, farther research is needed before those algorithms can be used to routine diagnostics.

  • Normal and atypical forms of mitosis in cancer cells. A, normal mitosis; B, chromatin bridge; C, multipolar mitosis; D, ring mitosis; E, dispersed mitosis; F, asymmetrical mitosis; G, lag-type mitosis; and H, micronuclei. H&E stain.

[edit]

Jail cell rounding [edit]

Cell shape changes through mitosis for a typical animal cell cultured on a flat surface. The cell undergoes mitotic cell rounding during spindle assembly and then divides via cytokinesis. The actomyosin cortex is depicted in reddish, DNA/chromosomes purple, microtubules dark-green, and membrane and retraction fibers in blackness. Rounding also occurs in alive tissue, as described in the text.

In animal tissue, near cells round up to a near-spherical shape during mitosis.[73] [74] [75] In epithelia and epidermis, an efficient rounding procedure is correlated with proper mitotic spindle alignment and subsequent correct positioning of girl cells.[74] [75] [76] [77] Moreover, researchers have found that if rounding is heavily suppressed information technology may consequence in spindle defects, primarily pole splitting and failure to efficiently capture chromosomes.[78] Therefore, mitotic prison cell rounding is thought to play a protective role in ensuring accurate mitosis.[77] [79]

Rounding forces are driven by reorganization of F-actin and myosin (actomyosin) into a contractile homogeneous jail cell cortex that 1) rigidifies the jail cell periphery[79] [80] [81] and 2) facilitates generation of intracellular hydrostatic pressure level (up to x fold higher than interphase).[82] [83] [84] The generation of intracellular pressure is particularly critical under confinement, such as would be important in a tissue scenario, where outward forces must exist produced to round up confronting surrounding cells and/or the extracellular matrix. Generation of force per unit area is dependent on formin-mediated F-actin nucleation[84] and Rho kinase (ROCK)-mediated myosin 2 contraction,[80] [82] [84] both of which are governed upstream by signaling pathways RhoA and ECT2[80] [81] through the activity of Cdk1.[84] Due to its importance in mitosis, the molecular components and dynamics of the mitotic actomyosin cortex is an surface area of active research.

Mitotic recombination [edit]

Mitotic cells irradiated with X-rays in the G1 stage of the cell wheel repair recombinogenic Dna damages primarily by recombination between homologous chromosomes.[85] Mitotic cells irradiated in the G2 phase repair such amercement preferentially by sister-chromatid recombination.[85] Mutations in genes encoding enzymes employed in recombination cause cells to have increased sensitivity to being killed by a variety of Dna dissentious agents.[86] [87] [88] These findings advise that mitotic recombination is an accommodation for repairing DNA damages including those that are potentially lethal.

Development [edit]

Some types of prison cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

At that place are prokaryotic homologs of all the key molecules of eukaryotic mitosis (east.chiliad., actins, tubulins). Being a universal eukaryotic property, mitosis probably arose at the base of the eukaryotic tree. As mitosis is less circuitous than meiosis, meiosis may accept arisen after mitosis.[89] However, sexual reproduction involving meiosis is also a primitive characteristic of eukaryotes.[ninety] Thus meiosis and mitosis may both take evolved, in parallel, from bequeathed prokaryotic processes.

While in bacterial cell division, afterwards duplication of Deoxyribonucleic acid, ii circular chromosomes are fastened to a special region of the prison cell membrane, eukaryotic mitosis is usually characterized by the presence of many linear chromosomes, whose kinetochores attaches to the microtubules of the spindle. In relation to the forms of mitosis, airtight intranuclear pleuromitosis seems to exist the most primitive type, as it is more like to bacterial division.[11]

Gallery [edit]

Mitotic cells can be visualized microscopically by staining them with fluorescent antibodies and dyes.

  • Early prophase: Polar microtubules, shown equally light-green strands, take established a matrix effectually the currently intact nucleus, with the condensing chromosomes in blue. The scarlet nodules are the centromeres.

  • Early prometaphase: The nuclear membrane has merely disassembled, allowing the microtubules to quickly interact with the kinetochores, which get together on the centromeres of the condensing chromosomes.

  • Metaphase: The centrosomes have moved to the poles of the cell and accept established the mitotic spindle. The chromosomes accept congressed at the metaphase plate.

  • Anaphase: Kinetochore microtubules pull the two sets of chromosomes apart, and lengthening polar microtubules push the halves of the dividing cell farther apart, while chromosomes are condensed maximally.

  • Telophase: Reversal of prophase and prometaphase events and thus completing the cell cycle.

See likewise [edit]

  • Aneuploidy
  • Binary fission
  • Chromosome abnormality
  • Cytoskeleton
  • Meiosis
  • Mitogen
  • Mitosis Promoting Factor
  • Mitotic bookmarking
  • Motor poly peptide

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Farther reading [edit]

  • Morgan DL (2007). The cell cycle: principles of command. London: Published by New Science Press in association with Oxford Academy Press. ISBN978-0-9539181-two-6.
  • Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P (2002). "Mitosis". Molecular Biology of the Cell (quaternary ed.). Garland Science. Retrieved 2006-01-22 .
  • Campbell Northward, Reece J (December 2001). "The Prison cell Cycle". Biology (6th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings/Addison-Wesley. pp. 217–224. ISBN978-0-8053-6624-2.
  • Cooper G (2000). "The Events of M Stage". The Cell: A Molecular Approach (2nd ed.). Sinaeur Associates, Inc. Retrieved 2006-01-22 .
  • Freeman S (2002). "Cell Segmentation". Biological Science . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. pp. 155–174. ISBN978-0-thirteen-081923-ix.
  • Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky L, Matsudaira P, Baltimore D, Darnell J (2000). "Overview of the Cell Cycle and Its Command". Molecular Cell Biology (4th ed.). West. H. Freeman. Retrieved 2006-01-22 .

External links [edit]

  • A Wink animation comparison Mitosis and Meiosis
  • Khan Academy, lecture
  • Studying Mitosis in Cultured Mammalian Cells
  • Full general K-12 classroom resources for Mitosis
  • The Jail cell-Cycle Ontology
  • WormWeb.org: Interactive Visualization of the C. elegans Jail cell Lineage – Visualize the entire cell lineage tree and all of the cell divisions of the nematode C. elegans

sligostrans.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis

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